Agricultural Business and Trade Opportunities in Myanmar

With a view to develop agriculture, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, in line with the market oriented economy, is undertaking necessary measures to maximize private domestic participation, to attract foreign investment and accelerate growth and development. The local and foreign entrepreneurs are invited to invest and establish mutually beneficial trade and business in the form of Joint Venture or 100% investment in the followings area:---

• Land utilization
• Establishment of Agro-based industries
• Assembling and manufacturing of light agricultural machinery and small farming implements
• Manufacturing of agricultural inputs and related support products
• Trading of agricultural commodities, input supplies and machineries

LAND UTILIZATION
The Central Committee for Management of Culturable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Land, which was formed in 1991, grants approvals to both local and foreign investors with the expertise, technology and capital who desire to invest in agricultural undertakings in Myanmar. The Central Committee’s approval of up to the maximum of 5,000 acres, allows these investors to cultivate or utilize cultivable land, fallow land and waste land for agricultural purposes as bellow:---

Agriculture

1) for Plantation Crops 5,000 acres
(e.g. Rubber, Palm Oil, Cashew nut)
2) for Orchard (e.g Citrus, mango, banana) 3,000 acres
3) for Seasonal Crops 1,000 acres

Aquaculture

Livestock & Poultry Farming and Aquaculture

1) Aquaculture 2,000 acres
2) Livestock and Poultry Farming
• Buffalo, cattle, horse 5,000 acres
• Sheep, goat 1,000 acres
• Poultry, pig 500 acres

Duration has been fixed for a maximum of thirty years for cultivation and utilizing land for plantation crops and orchard, livestock and poultry farming and aquaculture purposes. The period may be extended upon negotiation depending on type of project or nature of activities.

U Nyi Nyi, Kasetsart University

General Role and Technical Proficiency of Agricultural Extension Agents under Human Resource Development in Myanmar
Nyi Nyi[1], Khin Oo[2], Thanda Kyi[3]

Abstract

This study was conducted to examine the working condition and technical proficiency of agricultural extension agents in Mandalay division in the year 2003. The data were collected through group interviews using questionnaires from stratified random sample of 117 respondents (B.Ag/B.Agr.Sc degree holders) in different agricultural enterprises and services. The collected data included extension activities, attitude on their job, problems encountered in extension, experience in in-service trainings, biography and technical knowledge.

Usual extension functions were performed by agricultural extension agents, such as making contact with farmers, writing reports, meeting with administrative personnel, supervising demonstration plots and distribution of inputs. Having contact with farmers was for the reason of supervising demonstration plot and to collect some data. Extension workers mostly used the farm and home visits (21%) and group meetings (20%) and demonstrations (19%) of extension methods. The extension workers were facing with hard or difficult conditions such as poor transport, no incentives (such as salary scale, advancement in job opportunities).

Most of the deputy supervisors had worked about 10 years as field workers. Given them the choice, fifty two percent of respondents want to establish private agricultural business. Most of the respondents (95%) had been to in-service trainings. It was found that training emphasis was placed on field crop production. There were only six respondents who had participated in extension education trainings. Comparison between two types of pre-service trainings, namely, general agriculture (up to 1994) and the elective stream system (1994 and up to date) practiced by Yezin Agricultural University was not significantly different in technical knowledge offered. Extension agents were strong in production subjects, but not strong in technical knowledge on plant protection, agricultural engineering and agricultural economics.

INTRODUCTION

The broader function of extension work is to help people to solve their own problem through the application of scientific knowledge is now generally accepted. If this be true then extension must be regarded as largely educational. Extension education differs from formal education. It is concerned not only with learning, but with the application of the knowledge gained to the everyday problems of rural living. It is an extremely practical and concrete type of education that may in most cases be put to use at once.
When agricultural extension work is reasonably well developed in a country, a team of staff members will be found working at different levels of administration to establish a channel of communication and to ensure a continuous flow of useful information (Chang, 1963).
There are four groups of extension personnel; administrators, supervisors, subject matter specialists and farm advisors. The first three are comparatively few in number. Farm advisors are village level extension workers (VEWs) and by far the largest and most important group in any extension service (Chang, 1963).
An extension service is primarily people. Their attitude and behaviour determine the effectiveness of the organization. It is important to have enough personnel to organize and conduct programmes reaching all members of the rural community, quality of personnel is being more important (Maunder, 1978). “An agricultural extension worker who has no solid subject matter to convey to farmers does not really have anything valuable to offer, regardless of his enthusiasm and communications skills” (Blum, 1985).
There are three services for a country’s agricultural development, agricultural education, research and extension. Among three services, education is of course basically important for it produces extension workers, teaching staff and researchers who must be well trained in order to do what is required of them (Chang, 1963). The primary objective of agricultural education is to train manpower for the agricultural and rural sector (Hoffmann, 1985). Two types of instructions are essential to produce capable field extension workers, namely, (basic) pre-service education and training, and (on the job) in-service training (Maalouf and Contado, 1983).
For a successful extension agent, there are nine categories of professional competencies. These are administration, programme planning, programme execution, teaching, communication, understanding human behaviour, professionalism, evaluation and youth programmes. At the pre-service level, emphasis needs to be placed on extension methodology, communication skills, understanding human behaviour and principle of extension education. In-service training has immense potential for improving and upgrading extension programmes (Lindley and Gonzales, 1983).
The technical competencies taught at the pre-service level are a foundation (Lindley and Gonzales, 1983).
Although extension is one of the components supporting development, it is also supported and affected by the quality of agricultural research, the degree to which policies and prices support the use of technological adoption, and the effectiveness of supporting infrastructure (Watts, 1984). Extension effectiveness will be dependent upon (a) appropriate technology (b) attractive market and (c) available inputs, which are outside its direct control (Russell, 1981).
Nevertheless, the whole extension process is dependent upon the extension agent, who is the critical element in all extension activities. If the extension agent is not able to respond a given situation and function effectively, it does not matter how imaginative the extension approach is or how impressive the supply of inputs and resources for extension work is. Indeed, the effectiveness of the extension agent can often determine the success or failure of an extension programme (Chamber, 1993).

OBJECTIVES

Generally, it is accepted that, human resource is the most important for the development, up-to-now, there is no investigation on technical knowledge of agricultural extension agents under human resource development in Myanmar. This study might be the first attempt of such an investigation and it was carried out with the following objectives:
(1) To examine extension methods and activities performed in Myanma Agricultural Extension Services;
(2) To investigate the motivation, job opportunities and aspiration on extension job, and;
(3) To identify the training needs of extension agents by examining their technical knowledge level.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Criteria for Sampling Method
The study had focused on technical proficiency of extension agent (agricultural executive staff). Thus, the sampling design of stratified random sampling was used for the following reasons:
Selection of respondents having the same educational level (that is B.Ag./B.Agr.Sc degree holders) might reduce sampling errors,
Respondents were field level extension worker, (Non-Gazetted Officers) who had direct contact with farmers, and;
Their graduation year were from 1984 to 2003, aiming at age group of 25 to 45, in the sense of active group.

Sampling Procedure
The sampling frame was the lists from divisional headquarters of respective organizations from Mandalay Division. Those who had interests and matched with above criteria were selected as respondents.

Questionnaire
The questionnaire was developed at the Yezin Agricultural University. It was prepared in bilingual, to overcome the language barrier for some respondents.
The questionnaire was divided into four sections;
Section A included questions specifically on the extension services, such as the extension methods, main problems in performing extension work,
Section B focused questions specifically on trainings, such as type of training received, training duration etc.
Section C had questions focused on biography and service year
Section D organized questions aiming to evaluate their technical knowledge of the extension staff. These questions were arranged in subjects, namely; Agronomy, Agricultural Botany, Agricultural Chemistry, Plant Protection, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Economics and Horticulture. There were 20 questions in each subject except agricultural Engineering and Agricultural Economics. The reason is that these subjects are complementary. The questions were carefully selected in consultation with some experienced lecturers from YAU. All of these questions were extracted from “multiple choice questions for CXC Agricultural Science” written by Hammans (1988). It should be noted that all these questions were not norm-referenced type.
These objective questions were designed to test knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation of the agricultural extension staff.
The questionnaire was pre-tested with three M.Agr.Sc candidates and one demonstrator from YAU before the study.

Data collection
The data for this study were gathered by group interview technique. Printed questionnaires were delivered to each respondent and after filling up the questions the paper were collected and given numerical codes. Before starting the survey, the plan of interviewing scheme was made with the agreement of official personnel from each department. Some officials from each department helped for this purpose. There were ten group interviews for this study. This study was done in Mandalay division for the reason of easy to travel and one of the largest divisions established with different agricultural organizations. Therefore, Mandalay division could be assumed a representative of the Myanma agricultural extension service.
Each interview was done at their meeting rooms. The interview commenced on 27th October 2003 and ended on 8th December 2003. After each interview session, the responded questionnaires were checked for mistake or incomplete information. A total of 117 respondents were selected. Thirty final year students were selected to get benchmark of technical knowledge at pre-service level.
Data processing and analysis
All responses were given numerical codes. The open-ended questions were carefully read, response categories identified and then coded for response types. Descriptive analysis, and ‘t’ test were done by using Statistical Analysis System (SAS).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of the Respondents
There were one hundred and seventeen (117) respondents in this study and all of them were (B.Ag. or B.Agr.Sc) degree holders, among them 4 respondents were M.Agr.Sc degree holders. Regarding their age the minimum was 24 and the maximum was 47 years old. Mean value of their age was 32.4 years. Their occupations or designations were deputy supervisor (24.8%), assistant supervisor (53.8%) and deputy assistant supervisor (21.4%). Their services ranged from 0.5 to 20.0 year and average service was 6.2 years.

Service
Generally, total service duration and point of entry influence on getting higher position. There were some differences concerning with point of entry and duration in each position. These differences were found not only in the same organization but also in different agricultural organizations (Table 1).
For the case of deputy supervisors from MAS, most of them have been working in the present position for about four years (3.88 year) on the average. However, they had to serve as deputy assistant supervisor and assistant supervisor for 5.58 and 5.41 years, respectively. The total service required to get the position of deputy supervisor was about 11 year (10.99) in average.
In MCSE, the average total service of deputy supervisors was 9 years. They served as deputy assistant supervisor for 1.5 years and as an assistant supervisor for 5.5 years. They have been serving as deputy supervisor for an average of 2.5 years.
For the case of MFE, the deputy supervisors had worked for 2.25 years as deputy-assistant supervisor, 4.5 years as assistant supervisor. They have served as deputy supervisors (present post) for 4.16 years at the time of this study. Their total service was 10.1 years in average.
In this study, there were only seven respondents from MSE; one deputy supervisor and six assistant supervisors. The case for the deputy-supervisor was exceptional because she was transferred from the university to MSE. Assistant supervisors had different point of entry, three of them had to start their service as fixed pay.
Among these organizations, MAS is the largest and foremost one. Most of the graduates are absorbed by this organization. In the last 20 years, point of entry and advancement in job opportunities in MAS were low compared to the present situation. Nowadays, after reforming the enterprises, one step higher point of entry was adopted, and its point of entry is higher than before. This situation may be favourable for the employees. It was noticed that the job opportunity was relatively higher in MFE (4.5 years was required for an assistant supervisor to become a deputy supervisor, while 5.4 years was required in MAS and 5.5 years in MCSE).
In other organizations, such as MCSE and MSE, the point of entry was high (assistant supervisor), but at present, the point of entry was comparatively lower in MSE (3 employees with fixed pay) than in MAS. However, service career of staff was found to be better than the past in all organizations.
Considering agricultural graduates as a professional group, starting their life career as a deputy assistant supervisor would be very low. So, it would be essential to raise their confidence, morale and motivation towards their fit performance by promoting their point of entry. Another investigation on their service career is strongly recommended.







Table 1. Service career for the extension agents

Present Position
N
Duration in each position (year)



Fixed Pay
Deputy Assistant Supervisor
Assistant Supervisor
Deputy Supervisor
Total service (year)
MAS
1) a. Deputy Supervisor
4
-
-
6.25
2.5
8.75
b. Deputy Supervisor
3
-
7.33
4.66
5.3
17.33
c. Deputy Supervisor
6
4.5
3.83
5.33
3.66
17.33
Average
-
-
5.58
5.41
3.88
14.47
2) Asst - supervisor
25
-
1.32
5.76
-
7.08
3) Dpty-asst-supervisor
20
-
1.98
-
-
1.98
MCSE
1) a. Deputy Supervisor
2
-
-
5.5
3.5
9
b. Deputy Supervisor
9
-
1.50
5.5
2
9
Average


1.50
5.5
2.5
9
2) a. Assist – supervisor
8
-
2.18
6.55
-
8.73
b. Assist – supervisor
3
-
-
8
-
8
Average

-
2.18
7.27
-
8.37
3) Dpty-Asst-supervisor
5
-
3.00
-
-
3
MFE
1) a. Deputy Supervisor
2


4
4.5
8.5
b. Deputy Supervisor
1

4
5
7
16
c. Deputy Supervisor
1

0.5
4.5
1
6
Average


2.25
4.5
4.16
10.1
2) a. Assist – supervisor
20
-
-
2
-
2
b. Assist – supervisor
1
-
1
1
-
2
Average

-
1
1.5
-
2
MSE
1) Deputy Supervisor
1
-
-
-
4
4
2) a. Assist – supervisor
3
0.5
-
1.5
-
2
b. Assist – supervisor
2
-
-
8
-
8
c. Assist – supervisor
1
-
1
4
-
5
Average

-
1
4.5
-
5
It is worthy to note that uniformity in policy and equity in handling extension personnel matter are essential and afford a way to limit political and outside interference, and dissatisfaction and rivalry among the personnel (Maunder, 1978).

Table 2 Aspiration on extension job



Future career
Respondents
Number
To get high rank
To take high income job
To run private agricultural business
Male
40
14 (35.0%)
6 (15.0%)
27 (67.5%)
Female
77
41 (53.2%)
12 (15.6%)
34 (44.2%)
Total
117
55 (47.0%)
18 (15.4%)
61 (52.1%)
Respondents can answer more than one item.

Fifty two percent of total respondents stated that they wanted to establish their own agricultural business. Among them, sixty seven percent of male respondents and forty four percent of female respondents were included. It can be assumed that most of male respondents had more entrepreneur motive to establish their own business than their counterparts (Table 2).
It was found that forty seven percent of the respondents desired to become higher officials. For this future career, female respondents who were accounted for 53% of this group expected that future career. Alternatively, fifteen percent of both female and male respondents wanted to do high-income job instead of doing their present job.

Extension Agents’ Contribution to Extension Activities
Although respondents were from different organizations, their activities or functions were similar and most of them described that much of their time (23%) were spent on making contact with farmers (Figure 1).
Writing reports (22%) and attending meeting with administrative person (17%) took second and third places. Reporting by the extension worker is essential if that programme is to operate effectively (Maunder, 1978).
“Demonstration is the most effective method of extension teaching. This method is particularly useful in areas where literacy is low, and new ideas are not readily accepted” (Chang, 1963). Distribution of inputs is complementary extension function. Inputs needed in connection with extension message must be available. Where no organization or commercial enterprise provides these inputs, extension department must temporarily provide these services (SDC, 1997).
Collecting data is time consuming and competes with other extension functions. Extensionists should only collect data and information essential to extension work (SDC, 1997). In this study, it was clear that most of the agricultural executive staff had to make contact with farmers.
Figure 1. Extension agents’ contribution to extension activities

Specific extension methods used by individual staff
The most common extension methods were farm and home visit (21%), group meeting (20%) and demonstration (19%) (Fig 2). Farm and home visit technique is costly in terms of time spent and the member of clients contacted (which will be few). However, the benefits are numerous enough to make this a highly recommended technique. Group methods are especially effective in persuading extension’s clientele to try a new idea or practice (Kang and Song, 1984).

Figure 2. Specific extension methods used by individual staff

Though the mass media is powerful, this method was used comparatively less than other methods. Only 9% of respondents stated that they had used mass media (Fig 2). Mass media channels are more important than inter-personnel channels for earlier adopter than for later adopters. The effects of mass media channels, especially among peasants in less developed countries are greater when these media are coupled with inter-personnel communication channels (Roger and Shoemaker, 1971).

Main problems faced in performing agricultural extension work
Common problems experienced by the extension agents are given in eleven categories and in each category there are four levels: strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree (Table 3).


Table 3. Main problems faced in performing agricultural extension work

Sr.
Main Problem
Frequency
Mean


0
1
2
3
4

1
Poor transport
18
43
43
11
2
2.78
2
No incentive for staff
20
28
44
22
3
2.49
3
Inadequate staff
23
15
52
21
6
2.26
4
Too many farmers to advise
27
13
50
26
1
2.26
5
No suitable market for products
19
12
40
39
6
2.17
6
Not related to farmers needs
20
7
35
50
5
2.11
7
Farmers not involved in programme
21
7
41
45
2
2.09
8
Farmers are poor
22
11
36
44
4
2.09
9
Farmers are conservative
24
8
39
44
2
2.04
10
No cooperation of farmer
23
7
21
64
2
1.89
11
Farmers are illiterate
28
4
35
47
3
1.86
*0 = No response 1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree
3 = Agree 4 = Strongly agree

Their attitude values are listed in descending order. Respondents agreed that they had poor transport (2.78), no incentive (2.49) and inadequate staff (2.26). The two categories that they disagreed are “no cooperation of farmers in extension programme” (1.89) and “farmers are illiterate” (1.86). It is clear that the main problem of the extension agent is poor transportation. Williams (1977) also reported that the nature of extension activities requires that the staff be mobile since they must be in actual contact with the farmers. Lack of adequate transport and other essential requisite for the extension staff is likely to lead low morale and ineffectiveness among extension agents.

In-service training
Table 4. Training received by extension agents (days)*

Subject area
N
(%)
Min.
Max.
Sum
Std Dev.
Mean
Field crop production
41
(35.0)
2.0
240.0
2326.0
76.31
56.73
Management and finance
19
(16.2)
7.0
150.0
663.0
29.95
34.89
Induction training
29
(24.8)
21.0
60.0
891.0
5.87
30.72
Extension education
6
(5.1)
10.0
30.0
160.0
8.17
26.67
Plant protection
21
(17.9)
1.0
74.0
438.0
17.51
20.86
Seed technology
15
(12.8)
1.0
37.0
224.0
10.57
14.93
Soil and water management
25
(21.4)
3.0
42.0
361.0
10.39
14.44
Vegetable & fruit production
7
(5.9)
5.0
28.0
89.0
8.77
12.71
Who haven’t been to any training
6
(5.1)
-
-
-
-
-
*Some respondents attended more than one training.
n = 117
Most of the respondents (95%) had participated in in-service training courses. It was found that trainings emphasized on field crop production. In this item, there was high number of trainees (41) and long training duration (mean day 56.7).
Training for management and finance took 2nd position according to average training duration of 34.9 days. Nineteen respondents (16.2 %) had taken this course. As far as the concept of extension function is concerned, this training may be undue training, because village level extension worker may not have responsibilities of office management and finance.
Regarding with induction training, 24.8% had taken this training course. All the respondents (staff) should have taken this course. Though most of the respondents were village level extension workers, only 5.1% had taken training course of “extension education”. This figure indicated that there was a seriously need concerning with “extension education training”. More trainings should be practiced because training is “the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better”. It helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Halim and Ali, 1997).

Technical Proficiency of Respondents
Technical proficiency of respondents was assessed by asking objective type questions on seven different agricultural subjects.

Table 5. Marks obtained based on gender difference

Sex
Marks (mean value)
Agro
Bot.
Chem
P.P
Engg.
Eco.
Horti.
Total
Female
8.14
6.84
7.05
5.71
6.82
5.61
8.52
48.69
Male
7.78
7.36
6.91
5.91
6.07
5.79
8.15
49.97

Although mean value for male group was slightly high, there was no significant difference on agricultural technical knowledge of male and female extension worker (Table 5 and Table 6). It can be concluded that male and female extension workers have the same technical knowledge on agriculture.



Table 6. “t” test for male and female marks according to the subjects

Sex
Subject
Mean
Std. Dev.
Std. Err.
Min.
Max.
F
7
6.85
0.95
0.36
5.79
8.15
M
7
6.95
1.09
0.42
5.61
8.52

Variances
T value
DF
Prob.> T
Equal
-0.1891
12.0
0.8532ns
ns not significant at 0.10 probability level


Another attempt was made to high-light the importance of pre-service training. It was done by comparison with respondents who had not been to in-service training. They were students in the second term of final year B.Agr.Sc course. Their positions were 1 to 5 from each elective stream and many of them were various scholarship award holders. Their technical knowledge was assessed in the same manner. ‘t’ test was done for comparison. As there was different sample size for respondents (117) and final year students (30), the analysis was done by grouping them according to subjects.
There was no significant difference between these two groups concerning with their technical knowledge (Table 7 and Table 8). Getting a slightly higher mean value for extension agents may be the results of their experiences, accumulation of knowledge and in-service trainings. Regarding with the outstanding final year students, their mean value for each subject is slightly lower than extension agents. It might be explained by many reasons; firstly, they have been trained only four-year programme at university compared with the respondents, secondly, the former group had received various in-service trainings. Thus, regarding with the technical knowledge pre-service training (in University) is believed to be foundation for the agricultural staff.

Table 7. Marks obtained in different subjects between final year students (2004 only) and extension agents

Respondents
Marks (mean value)
Agro.
Bot.
Chem.
P.P
Engg.
Eco.
Horti.
Total
Final year students
7.57
7.67
7.62
5.48
6.71
4.43
7.95
47.43
Extension agents
7.90
7.18
6.96
5.84
6.32
5.73
8.28
48.22

Table 8. Comparison between technical knowledge of final year students and extension agents

Year
Subjects
Mean
Std. Dev.
Std. Err.
Min.
Max.
n
7
6.78
1.34
0.51
4.43
7.95
o
7
6.89
0.98
0.37
5.73
8.28
n: final year students ( only 2004)
o: extension agents

Variances
T
DF
Prob> T
Equal
-0.18
12.0
0.8605ns
For H0: Variances are equal, F’ = 1.84 DF = (6,6) Prob>F’ = 0.4758







Table 9. Technical knowledge level of respondents under different
pre-service trainings (general agriculture and elective stream
system)

Educational system
Graduation year
Before 1994 junior General agricultural system
1984
1985
1986
1987
1991
1992
1993
1994
No. of respondents
3
5
6
9
7
4
5
6
Marks (average)
43.57
53.57
54.29
45.71
47.55
45.54
50.14
47.14
After 1994 junior
Elective stream system
1994
1995
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
No. of respondents
2
6
11
10
11
12
12
7
Marks (average)
46.79
46.07
47.34
48.57
47.27
51.37
48.57
46.84

Moreover, the respondents had experienced different pre-service training in university; some of them (45 respondents) were trained in general agriculture programme and some (72 respondents) were trained under elective stream system (Table 9). To compare these two groups, ‘t’ test was done. Respondents were grouped according to their graduation year. The graduation year of 1996 was excluded, as there was only one respondent.


Table 10. Comparison between technical proficiency of respondents under different pre-service trainings

Year
Group
Mean
Std. Dev.
Std. Err.
Min.
Max.
a
8
47.85
1.66
0.59
46.07
51.36
b
8
48.44
3.88
1.37
43.57
54.29
a: after ’94 junior
b: before ’94 junior

Variances
T
DF
Prob> T
Equal
-0.39
14.0
0.6997ns
For H0: Variances are equal, F’ = 5.47 DF = (7,7) Prob>F’ = 0.0393

There was no significant difference concerning with their agricultural knowledge. Mean value for the respondents (48.4) who had trained under general agriculture programme was slightly higher than the other group (Table 10). It might be explained that they had trained full year of pre-service training duration and experiences gained through comparatively long service. Low mean value for the respondents under elective stream system might be the result/outcome of the elective stream system. They have been trained for shorter duration due to unexpected situation. It can be assumed that students could not view the agriculture as a system, they have comparatively shorter service and they had been trained in condensed form during pre-service training for some circumstances.
The next attempt is to investigate the weakest subject of the respondents. It was clearly seen that horticulture and agronomy had nearly the same high mean value of 8.2 and 7.9. Mean values for agricultural engineering (6.3), plant protection (5.8) and agricultural economics (5.7) subject areas were found to be significantly lower than that of others (Table 11 and Figure 3).



Table 11. Respondents’ technical knowledge level for each subject

Subject
Agro.
Bot.
Chem.
P.P
Engg.
Eco.
Horti.
Mean
7.91
7.18
6.96
5.84
6.32
5.73
8.28
n = 117,
minimum significant difference = 0.72

Figure 3. Marks obtained in different subjects

It could be explained that high mark in Horticulture, Agronomy and Agricultural Botany was due to the emphasis of in-service training on crop production. Regarding with plant protection, the respondents (18 %) had been to plant protection training for total duration of 438 days. This figure was relatively less than the crop production trainings, because respondents (35 %) had been to crop production training for total duration of 2326 days (Table 4).
None of the respondents had been to trainings on agricultural engineering and agricultural economics. Nowadays, as there is increase in irrigated area and more use of machines in farming, it would be necessary to obtain some knowledge on agricultural engineering. For efficient use of scarce resources training on agricultural economics should be exercised.
Regarding with the subject of plant protection, there are a lot of private organizations, which provide some agricultural chemicals, and most of these organizations are led by former SMSs’. To get the farmers’ impression on public extension officers, it may require sound knowledge on plant protection subject.

Recommendation and Conclusion

In Myanmar, extension services mainly conducted by government, usual extension functions were found as in other nations. Farm and home visit, group meeting and demonstration techniques were used to contact with farmers. Therefore group method was found to be the most common method in Myanmar. This method was especially suitable where worker-farmer ratio was high. It would be more effective when coupled with mass media.
One fourth of their activities were emphasized on contact with their clients (farmers) for supervising of demonstration plots and collecting some agricultural data. Extension agents should collect data and information essential to extension program. Such a duplication of function may lead to dilute the extension efforts.
Generally extension agents have to travel and work within their jurisdiction. This study revealed that the main problems of the extension agents were poor transport and lack of incentive for their performance. There is a need to provide an appropriate transport facility for the efficient mobility such as motor-cycle and bicycles.
Usually extension worker started their service career as deputy-assistant supervisor. They had to serve for an average 10 year to become a deputy-supervisor. This post is subordinate to gazetted officer. Employment and advancement in job opportunities should be create to look upon their job as life career.
Most of the in-service trainings were oriented towards field crop productions. There were very few trainings on extension education.
Sound technical knowledge is essential for extension agents. “To what is the level of extension agents should be” is depending on the development of country and availability of employees. Concerning with the technical knowledge of the extension agents, it was found that pre-service training was the foundation.
All respondents under different pre-service trainings in university had comparatively more knowledge on horticulture, agronomy and botany. Their weak subject areas were plant protection, agricultural engineering and agricultural economics. Therefore, more trainings should be emphasized on these subject areas. Training needs assessment should be done before conducting trainings.

REFERENCES

Blum, A. (1985). Theory into practice a case study of postgraduate agricultural extension training. In: Training for Agriculture and Rural Development, FAO, 1985. pp. 105-107.
Chamber, R. (1993). Challenging the professions; Frontiers For Rural Development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
Chang, C.W. (1963). Increasing Food Production through Education, Research and Extension, FAO, 1963. pp. 3-27.
Halim, A. and Ali, M. M. (1997): Training and professional development. In: Improving agricultural extension. F.A.O, 1997. pp. 135-137.
Hammans, C. (1988). Multiple Choice Questions for CXC Agricultural Science. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Hoffman, H.K.F. (1985). Status of agricultural education and challenges for international agencies in education for agriculture. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Education for Agriculture, 1985. IRRI. pp. 73-85.

Kang, J.T. and H.K. Song. (1984). Individual and group teaching methods. In: Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual, edited by Swanson, B.E., FAO, 1984. pp. 133.
Lindley, W.I. and I.M. Gonzalez. (1983). Building curricula for extension agents. In: Training for Agricultural and Rural Development, FAO, 1983. pp. 112-114.
Maalouf, W.D. and T.E. Contado. (1983). Basic and in-service training for agricultural extension. In: Training for Agriculture and Rural Development, FAO, 1983. pp. 39-46.
Maunder, A.H. (1978). Agricultural extension: A Reference Manual, FAO, Rome. pp. 211-317.
Rogers, M. E. and F.F. Shoemaker. (1971). Communication of Innovation. New York press. pp. 266.
Russel, J. (1981). Adapting extension work. Finance and Development, 18 (2), 30-33. Cited by L.H. Watt (1984). The organizational setting for agricultural extension. In: Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual, edited by Swanson, B.E., FAO, Rome. pp. 29.
SDC. (1997). Agricultural Extension. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. LBL, 8315 Lindau, Switzerland. pp. 31.
Watts, L.H. (1984). The organizational setting for agricultural extension. In: Agricultural extension: A Reference Manual, edited by Swanson (1984), FAO, 1984. pp. 21.
Williams, T.S.K. (1977). Agriculture and adult education. In: Training for Agriculture and Rural Development. FAO, 1977. pp. 91.

Doctoral Research Paper of Daw Tin Tin Khaing

Study of in vitro culture of Gymnostachyum species

Tin Tin Khaing, A.L.T Perera[1], V.A Sumanasinghe2, D.S.A Wijesundara3
Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

ABSTRACT

The genus Gymnostachyum (Acanthaceae) consists of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbs, native to Sri Lanka. Gymnostachyum zeylanicum can be used as an ornamental plant and a ground cover in landscape designing. The present research was conducted to find the optimum in vitro conditions for rapid multiplication of novel Gymnostachyum plants developed through mutation. Modified MS liquid and solid media consisting of MS salts + 0.1g/l myoinositol without hormones and modified with BAP + NAA, supplemented by 20g/l sucrose media at pH -5.7 were used as treatments in the in-vitro cultures.
The MS medium containing 5mg/lit BAP + 1mg/lit NAA gave the best results for callus regeneration as well as plantlet formation. Explants of leaf tissue and immature seed cultures showed high potential for regeneration under in vitro conditions. Callus formation and regeneration of the plantlets began about six weeks after culturing of leaf explants. The plantlets formed by leaf explants produced without roots and the plantlets from immature embryos developed roots.

Key words: Gymnostachyum, MS medium, explants,

If you want to have full paper, please contact to this address; tintinkhaing@gmail.com

Doctorate Research Proposal of Daw Myint Thu Zar, University Putra Malaysia

INFLUENCES OF HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS

ON POLLEN QUALITY OF SOYBEAN [(Glycine max L.) Meer]

RESPONSE TO SEED YIELD AND SEED QUALITY

INTRODUCTION

Global climate change has emerged as an important environment challenge due to potential impact on biological systems of planet Earth (Wather et.al.,2002). Since the beginning of the industrial revolution (about 1750), the concentrations of CO₂, methane and nitrous oxide have increased by 31%, 150% and 16%,respectively (Houghton et.al., 2001). The present day CO₂ concentration (370 umol mol^-1) has not been exceeded during the past 420,000 years and likely not during the past 20 million years (Petii et.al., 1999; Houghton et.al., 2001).

Human activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuel are mainly responsible for the recent rapid increases in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases including CO₂ (Kaufmann & Stern, 1997; Houghton et.al., 2001; Stott et.al., 2001). At the present rate of emission, CO₂ concentration is subject to be in the range of 540-970 umol mol by the end of this century, which will potentially increase global near surface temperature by 1.4-5.8^.C (Houghton e.tal.,2001) with some degree of delay, global warming will occur concurrently with increase in CO₂. Therefore, it is important to quantify the interactive effects of increasing temperature and CO₂ on crop production.

High quality planting seed is a key component of all grain cropping system. High quality seed is need to ensure adequate plant populations, with reasonable seeding rate, in a range of field conditions. Seed quality at planting represents the integrated effects of the environment during seed production and the conditions the seed were exposed to during harvest, conditioning, and storage. (Egli, D.B. et al. , 2005)

Soybean (Glycine max L.) Merr., has become the major source of edible vegetable oils and high protein feed supplements for livestock in the world. About 90% of the world’s soybean production occurs in the tropical and semi-arid tropical region, which are characterized by high temperature and low or erratic rainfall. In the tropic, most of the crops are near their maximum temperature tolerance; therefore crop yield may decrease even with minimal increases in temperature.

Reproduction plays an important role in the survival and succession of seed crop plants. The onset of the reproductive phase, its duration, and the quality and quantity of reproductive products are regulated by abiotics factors. Of the various abiotic factors, atmospheric temperature and CO₂ concentration are subject to change in the near future. The climate change factors being tested in this study modify reproductive organs and processes. Elevated [CO₂] and high temperature increased flower production in soybean (Nakamoto et.al., 2001; Zheng et.al., 2002).

Soybean seed yield components are also influenced by temperature. Soybean seed yield increased as temperature increased between 18/12 (day/night) and 26/20^.C, but yield decrease (when plants were grown at temperature) greater than 26/20^.C (Huxley et al., 1976; Sionit et.al., 1987). Raising temperature from29/20 to 34/20^.C during seed fill decreased soybean seed yield (Dornobos and Mullen, 1991).

The number of pods per plant generally increased as temperatures increased to near 26/20^.C (Sionit et.al., 1987). Plants grown at temperature exceeding 26/20^.C had decreased pod numbers (Huxley et.al., 1976; Thomas and Raper, 1977, 1978; Sionit et. al., 1987). During flowering and pod set, temperatures as high as 30/20^.C favored greater pod set (Lawn and Hume, 1985), but temperatures above 40^.C severely limited pod formation (Mann and Jaworski, 1970).

Seeds per plant increased as temperatures from early vegetative growth to maturity increased from 18/12 to 26/20^.C (Sionit et.al.,1987) and 26/19 to 36/29^.C (Baker et.al., 1989). Season- long night temperature increases from 10 to 24^.C did not influence seed number (Seddigh and Jolliff, 1984b). In contrast to these findings, Huxley et.al. (1976) observed fewer seeds per plant when day temperature was raised from 27 to 33^.C and night temperature was increased from 19 to 24^.C. Increase in temperature from 29/20 to 34/20^.C during seed fill resulted in fewer seeds per plant(Dornbos and Mullen,1991). Seeds per pod was the seed yield component least affected by temperature (Huxley et al., 1976; Sionit et al., 1987; Baker et al., 1989).

Weight per seed in soybean was increases in season-long temperatures from 18/12 to 26/20^.C (Sionit et al., 1987), but as temperature increased above 26/20, weight per seed decreased (Hesketh et al., 1973; Huxley et al., 1976; Baker et al., 1989). Temperatures above 30/25^.C during flowering and pod development reduced weight per seed, regardless of the temperature during seed fill (Egli and Wardlaw, 1980). Temperatures above 29/20^.C during seed fill decreased soybean weight per seed (Dornbos and Mullen, 1991).

Gan et al. (2004) found that the seed yield of canola decrease by 15% when high temperature stress was applied before flowering, whereas the yield reduction was 58% when the stress was delayed to the period of flowering, and further to 77% when the stress was delayed to the pod developmental stage.

Physiologically, the high temperature stress during reproductive development may have affected flower abortion, sequent sink site, and later pod abscission resulting a decreased number of seeds per plant (Duthion and Pigeaire, 1991). Also, high temperature stress during reproductive development may have negatively affected cell expansion, cotyledon cell number and thus seed filling rate, resulting in the lowered weight per seed (Munier- Jolain and Ney1998).

Most studies on the effect of temperature on soybean seed yield have concentrated on increases in day temperature or concomitant increases in day/night temperature. There were no beneficial interaction between [CO₂], Temperature and UV-B radiation on reproductive development processes such as pollen production, germination and tube length of soybean. Prasad et al. (2000b) investigated the effect of daytime soil and air temperature of 28 and 38^.C, from start of flowering to maturity, and reported 50% reduction in pod yield at high temperatures.

Yield decrease due to high temperature and [CO₂] could be due to the effect of on reproduction at both organ and process levels. High temperature inhibit pollen germination and pollen tube growth and genotypes differ in their sensitivity (Huan et.al., 2002; Kakani et.al., 2002). Decreased fruit- set at higher temperature was mainly due to poor pollen viability, reduce pollen production and poor pollen tube growth, all of which lead to poor fertilization of flowers (Prasad et al., 2003). Flower abortion also has been attributable to the decreased seeds per plant and seed yield in other crops such as Brassica napus (Angadi et al., 2000) B rapa ( Morrison and Stewart, 2002) and B. Juncea (Gan el at., 2004)

Pollen development, fertilization, and asynchrony of stamen and gynoceium development are sensitive to temperatures during flowering (Prasad et al.,1999; Croser et al.,2003; Boote et al.,2005). The lost of pollen or stigma viability under high temperatures stress might be the primary reason for the lowered number of seeds produce in the legume (Srinivasan et al., 1998; Davies et al., 1999; Hall, 2004).

Interactive effects of temperature and [CO₂] on other legume (Ahmed et.al., 1993; Prasad et. al., 2002, 2003) showed that that the positive interactions observed between [CO₂] and temperature on vegetative growth can not be translated to reproductive process. The physiology effects of high- temperature stress on reproductive development under typical field conditions are more pronounced the effects on vegetative development in many crop species (Hall,1992).

Significant negative correlation between pollen production and temperature were found in groundnut (Prasad et. al., 1999).Lower seed yield at high temperature under both ambient and elevated [CO₂] conditions was shown to be due to decreased pollen viability in groundnut and bean (Prasad et. al., 2002, 2003). Pollen sterility and pollen production at high temperatures may also be associated with early degeneration of the tapetal layer of pollen (Porch and Jahn, 2001).The exact physiological reasons of pollen viability loss are not clearly known and need further investigation (Sailaja et.al., 2005).

A better understanding of the influence of high temperature during reproductive growth on soybean seed yield and quality is needed. Although pollen may successfully fertilize an ovule, enhanced high temperature may stay reduce seed production by inducing abortion. The clear effect of high temperature on pollen production and pollen grain germination will have major implications on the fertilization process and fruit set in sensitive crop under future climates. This paucity of information along with these variable responses makes it difficult to predict the consequences of enhanced high temperature on pollen production and plant reproductive success. In reality, plants in nature are exposed to multiple environmental conditions concomitantly, and their performance can be assessed only when plants are grown in multiple stress conditions.

HYPOTHESIS

The perturbation of anther and pollen development due to extended treatment at high temperature stress will correlate with seed yield reduction and that one mechanism of reproductive heat tolerance may involve the reduction of the effects of heat on seed quality.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

To identify specific changes in anther and pollen morphology under high-temperature stress that may account for at least some of the differences observed between seed quality with yield of heat- tolerant and heat-sensitive soybean genotypes under high temperatures in the field.

The specific objectives of this research are as follow:

(1) To determine the interactive effects of high temperature on flower and pollen morphology, pollen production, pollen germination, and pollen tube length of soybean.

(2) To identify whether injury to the pistil or stamen during development is responsible for reduced fruit set under higher temperature stress.

(3) To evaluate the effects of day time high temperature on soybean seed yield components and seed quality.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiments will be conducted in the field for three planting seasons (January 2008 to January 2009) at University Putra Malaysia (UPM) Experimental Field with three genotypes namely Dieng, Willis, and AGR 190 ; in split plot randomized block desing with three replication, genotypes as main plots and high temperature treatments, randomized within the main plots, as subplots.

The plots will be irrigated as required to reduce moisture stress during the crop development stage. Seeds will be sown 4 cm deep (two seeds per hole) with a planting distance of 40 x 20 cm. Row spacing and length will be 0.45 m and 3 m, respectively and seedling rate will be about 30 seeds per meter length of row.

Normal crop production practices will be followed and fertilizer at the rate of 50 kg Urea + 75 kg KCL + 75 kg TSP per hectare will be applied at planting by surface application (Adisarwanto and Wudianto, 1999). Weed control will be accomplished with mechanical means using tractor will be operated motivator for pre-planting, hand weeding and post emergence inter-row cultivation for post-planting.

To be create variation in plant higher temperature, plastic sheet covered will be used. The two level of growth stages treatment during R1 to R2 (the first flowering period) and R1 to R5 (during flowering and pod set) will be imposed of 29 to 30 C higher temperature and the rest for control treatment (Dornbos and Mullen, 1991). The first reproductive stage R1 and R2 are the beginning one flower at any node immediately below the uppermost node with a completely unrolled leaf (Fehr and Caviness, 1977). The first treatment will be arrived after R2 stage the plastic cover sheet will be take out and the plant be received normal temperature the same with control treatment. Then the second treatment will be the R1 to R5. Growth stage R5 is the beans beginning to develop and beyond R5 stage the plastic sheet will be take out through the normal temperature growth (Descriptions of soybean reproductive growth stages by Fehr and Caviness, 1977 are shown in Appendix Table 1.

To determine the interactive effects of high temperature on flower and pollen morphology, pollen production, pollen germination, and pollen tube length

of soybean.

Measurement of Floral Morphology

Soybean, belong to the family Fabaceae and subfamily Papilionoideae, has a flower with a tubular calyx of five unequal sepal lobes and a five-parted corolla consisting of a posterior standard petal, two lateral wing petals, and two anterior keel petals in contact with each other but not fused (Carlson and Larsten,1987).Lengths of flower, standard petal, and staminal column will be measured on 20 fresh flowers randomly picked from five plants of each genotype, 60 Day After Sowing (DAS).Flower length will be measured from the tip of the standard petal to the base of the calyx. The standard petals will be stretched out before measuring the length, and the length will be measured from the point of insertion to the distal end. The stamina column will be separated from the flower and the length will be measured.

Measurement of Pollen Number

Mature anthers will be collected from different flowers from five plants a day before anthesis to determine the number of pollen grains will produce per anther.60 DAS. Pollen number will be counted by placing a single anther in a water drop on a glass slide and will squash with a needle, and the pollen grains will disperse in the drop of water will be counted (Bennett, 1999). The number of pollen grains from five anther per genotype under each treatment will be counted.

Measurement of Pollen Viability

Pollen viability will be determined using acetocarmine strain prepared by boiling a solution of 40% acetic acid saturated with carmine. Viability will be determined by counting red-staining pollen (viable) out of a total of 500 pollen grains using Cambridge Instruments microscope (Cambridge England). In several cases, due to insufficient inflorescences or number of pollen grains, two flowers will be examined instead of three and about 100 pollen grains will be counted instead of 500, respectively. (Porch TG & Jahn M., 2001).

Sample preparation

On the day of anthesis, flower will be collected from each treatment genotype combination between 08:00 and 09:00 h. Anthers and pistal will be dissected from the flowers and fixed in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate ( Ph 6.8) containing 2.5% glutaraldehyde and immediately refrigerated at 4 ^∙C. Prior to viewing the floral structures, the sample will be washed in 0.1 M sodium cacodylate buffer, dehydrate in a graded ethanol series (10-70%) at room temperature, stained with 2% uranyl acetate at 70% ethanol, dehydrated in a grade ethanol series (70-100%) and critical-point dried using a transition fluid.

Microscopy

For SEM analysis, the critical-point-dried anthers and pistils will be mounted on aluminum stubs, the edges of the stubs will be warped with sliver tape and the stubs will be sputter-coated with gold / palladium using a Bal-Tec SCD 050 sputter coater (Blazers). If the anthers had not dehisced as a result of the heat treatment, the anther will be dissected along the stomium to observe the pollen. A Hitachi S- 4500 SEM microscope (Tokyo, Japan) will be used to view the samples at 3 and 5 kV. All of the SEM microscopy sample images will be prepared using Adobe Photoshop software. (Adobe System, Mountain View, CA,USA).

Pollen viability will be analysed with a split-plot analysis of variance with field and temperature as the main plot and soybean genotype as the subplot. Statistical analysis of percentage pollen viability will performed after arcsin transformation.

Measurement of Pollen Germination and Pollen Tube Length

Pollen germination will be determined by the handing-drop method (Sophie M.et al., 1996) using the following sucrose and salt solution:m1.2 mol/L sucrose solution and a mineral-salt solution consisting of 2.54 m mol/L Ca (NO₃)₂, 1.62 m mol / L H₃BO₃, 1.00 m mol/L KNO_3, 0.88 m mol/L MgSO_4, and 3.5 m mol/L NH₃ with the Ph of this solution adjusted with 1 mol/l NaOH to 8.8. Equal parts of the sucrose and the salt solution will be mixed and one drop of surfactant will be added to prevent clumping of grains. Pollen will be scarped from all Petri dishes in random order using a clean teasing needle and will place in 0.01ml of the sucrose-salt solution on a microscope slide.

The slide will be inverted (to prevent anoxia) over a depression grid that will contain three drops of distilled H₂O. After 20 min (trial runs indicated that pollen germinated with 15min), the pollen grain will be observed with a light microscope at X200; pollen grains will be considered to have germinated when tube length will be equal to or greater than their diameter. Three such 0.01 m L sub samples will be taken from each Petri dish and two field of view will be examined per sub samples.

Pollen Morphology

For the pollen morphology, fresh flowers will be collected between 19:00 h and 21:00 one day before anthesis and will store in FAA (Formaldehyde: glacial acetic acid : ethyl alcohol). Solution will be fixed in 3% glutaral dehydrate in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, PH 7.2 over night at 4C for SEM. After fixation, specimens will be rinsed in buffer, post fixedin2%Osmium tetroxide in 0.1 M phosphate buffer for 2 h, will rinse in distilled water, dehydrated in an ethanol series, and critical point will dry in a Polaron E 3000 Critical Point Dryer (Quorum Technologies, Newhaven, UK). Specimens will be mounted on aluminum stubs, Sputter-coated with gold in a polaron E 5100 sputter coater ( Quorum Technologies) and viewed in a LEO Stereoscan 360 SEM ( LEO Electron Microscopy, Thornwood. NY,USA) at an accelerating voltage of 15 KV. Images will be recorded on Polaroid Type 55 Film (Polaroid, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA).

To identify whether injury to the pistil or stamen during development is responsible for reduced fruit set under higher temperature stress.

Plant Material

On the day of anthesis of flower population study, one of the two will be chosen plant (high-temperature stress treatment) will be covered with 0.178-mm-thick polyethylene film with a metallic structure and the other (control) will be left uncovered. Such a system has been shown to be a valuable method to increase temperature in the field with out negatively affecting other parameters (Rodrigi& Herrero, 2002). Temperature inside and outside the plastic cage will be monitored every 5 min with a data logger (Testostor 175-3; Testo, Lenzkirch, Germany) throughout the period of sequential pollination and fixation.

Pollination Procedure

Pollen will be obtained from flowers of soybean genotype will collect just 1d before anthesis (balloon stage); anther will be removed and left to dry on piece of paper for 24-48 h at room temperature. The pollen will be sieved through a 0.26 µm mesh and frozen at 20^.C until required. The duration of stigmatic receptivity will be evaluated through the capacity of the stigma to support pollen germination. For this purpose, flowers will be emasculated 1d before anthesis and hand- pollinated on the day of anthesis and thereafter every subsequent day. The pollination will be carried out until style abscission will occur.

Microscopic Observation

In all treatments the pistils will be fixed 24h after pollination in formalin:acetic acid: 70% ethanol (1:1:18; FAA). Pollen performance will be monitored in squah preparations after washing out the fixative with distilled water three times, 1h each, softening the pistil in 5% sodium sulphite in the autoclave for 10min at 1 kg cm^-2 and staining with 0.1% aniline blue in 0.1 NK₃PO_4. Preparations will be examined under an ortholux II microscope (Leitz, Wetzlar, Germany) will be equipped with UV epifluorescence with a hand pass 355-425 exciter filter and LP 460 barrier filter (Hedhly A. ET AL., 2003)

Statistical analyses will be performed using the SAS GLM (V. 15; SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Percentage data will be subjected to arcsine root square transformation and analysis of variance will be performed. The differences between means will be analysed by the Fisher’s Least Significant difference (LSD) test at the 0.05 level of significance.

Seed-Set

To determine the effects of temperature on seed – set, individual flowers were tagged and will be followed through final harvest at maturity. A total of 40 flowers will be randomly tagged in each treatment on 9 to 16 plants (about four flowers per plant) between 3 and 5 days after first flowering. Seed – set expressed as percentage will be defined as the proportion of 40 tagged flowers that produce seed.

Seed Growth

Once pod will be started, 40 pods at an identical stage of development will be tagged on 10 plants ( four per plant) and their development and growth will be monitored by destructive harvests of four randomly will be selected pods from three to four different plants at 5,10,17,27,41,55 and 70 days after tagging and at maturity. Plants grown at 29 to 30 C during R1 to R2 growth stages and R1 to R5 growth stages on 45 DAS, and those at normal temperature on 43DAS. So that the reproductive structures will be of a same age (7 days) after start of pod.(when 59% of plants will start pod.

Time series data will be obtained from these harvests will be used to determine the individual seed growth rate and effective seed – filling duration was the length of time (days) from start of seed growth (Y=0) to the time when the average maximum seed size will be reached.

To evaluate the effects of day time high temperature on soybean seed yield components and seed quality.

Seed Yield and Yield Components

Each experiment, the plants will be grown in 4 row plots each, 3 m long with 0.45 m spacing between rows. The middle two rows of each plot will be harvested at maturity (R8) when 95% of the pods will be reached their mature pod color (brown); will threshed by hand and seed moisture will be measured for seed moisture determination using oven dry on wet weight basis. 100 seeds of each plot will be kept in the oven dry for 24 hours at 105C. Yield of each plot will be adjusted to 14% seed moisture content.

Yield components such as pods per plant, seeds per pod from the average of five plant samples and 100 seeds weight will be recorded by 100 seeds sample from each plot at harvest maturity. These seeds will be stored in a controlled environment room (10C, 50% RH) until seed quality evaluations will be made.

Seed Quality Evaluation

All seed samples will be harvested at R8 during the three experiments will evaluate for viability (Standard Germination Test), vigor (Spped of Germination Days, evaluation after germination in hot water stress treatment).

Seed Viability

For seed viability, the standard germination test will be carried out will record 3d and 7d after emergence for each experiment and for each harvested plot. Standard germination tests will be based on ISTA recommendations (ISTA, 1996), But onlt one hundred seeds from each plot will be sown in plastic boxes contain will wash, oven dry (sterile) and moisten sand. Each boxes will be covered with another box as lid and will place for 7d in germination room at the temperature of 30±3^.C. Normal and abnormal seedlings will be counted after 3d and 7d sowing. Normal and abnormal seedlings will be classified according to ISTA classification (ISTA1996).

Seed Vigor

For the seed vigor evaluations will be counted standard germination, hot water treatment and conductivity test for all the experiments.

Germination Test

The same procedure outline follow for the standard germination test, a first count of normal seedlings which will strong, and at least 3.75 cm long will be made at 3d after sowing as described in the AOSA seed vigor testing rules (2001).

Hot Water Stress Test

The hot water stress procedure will be used a modification of that outlined by Kueneman (1983). Freshly will harvest and un weather seeds will be wrapped with muslin cloth and dipped for 70 seconds in 75^.C water and immediately rinse in 25^.C water for 1 minute. The hot water treated seed will be sown in oven dried sterilized fine sand in a germination room (grid house) at a depth of 1.5 cm in rows 5 cm apart and approximately 5cm between seeds within rows. Loose sand will be placed over the seeds, and will water tightly every day to keep the sand moist. Emerges seedlings (with the cotyledons completely above the sand surface) will be sown in three replication units of 100 seeds per plot. Evaluation of seedling will be done by the procedures of ISTA (1996).

Conductivity Test

Electrical conductivity of seed leachates will be performed on 25 seeds will obtain from each harvested plot with conductivity meter (Model 4301, Jenway, UK). Seeds will be soaked in 75ml deionized water for 24hours at room temperature. Results will be expressed per gram of seed to take into account variations in seed size between lots (ISTA,1993).

Data Analysis

To test the significance of high temperature, genotype and developmental growth stage and their interactive effects on flower morphology, pollen number per anther, pollen germination percentage, and pollen tube length data will be statistically analysis of variance (ANOVA) by Genstat 6 for windows (Genstat 6 Committee, 1997).

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be used to determine if significant differences will be present among means using SAS software version 15. Significant season treatment interactions will be occurred for several variables studied, data will be analyzed and will presents separately for each season. Genotype effect will be tested for significance using replication x genotype interaction mean square as the error term (Ea). Temperature on different development stage x genotype interaction will be tested for significance using error mean square (Eb). Mean separation will be carried out with the least significant difference (LSD). Error mean square (Ea) will be used in calculating the LSD ( = 0.05, 0.01) for comparing genotype differences. Error mean square (Eb) will be used to calculate the LSD ( = 0.05, 0.01) for making comparisons between temperature treatments and between temperature treatments with genotype.

For seed quality evaluations all seed samples will be harvested at harvest maturity (R8) during the experimental seasons will be evaluated for viability ( standard germination test), vigor (speed of germination days evaluation after germination in hot water stress treatment).

Seed germination test will be carried out and will record 3 day and 7 day after emergence for each treatment and each harvested plot. Seed germination test will be based on ISTA recommendations (ISTA, 1996). Normal and abnormal seedling will be classified according to (ISTA, 1996) classification. In addition to standard germination hot water treatment and conductivity test will be conducted for seed vigour evaluations for all the treatments (AOSA Seed Vigour Testing Rules)

EXPECTED OUTCOME

The response of soybean seed yield and seed quality to high temperature stress on reproductive growth stages R1 to R2 and R1 to R5 will have to be elucidated, and may will be related to the number and location of seeds on the plant. A plant with a small reproductive load may be able to maintain seed quality to a greater extent when subsequently high temperature-stressed than plants with a large reproductive load.

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Association of Official Seed Analysts.(2002). Seed Vigor testing handbook. No.32. Assoc. Official Seed Analysts, Las Cruces, NM.

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APPENDIX

Table 1 Development Stage Description for Soybean

Stage NO.	Description
R1	One flower at any node
R2	Flower at node immediately below the uppermost node with a completely unrolled leaf
R3	Pod 0.5 cm (1/4 inch) long at one of the Four uppermost nodes with a completely unrolled leaf
R4	Pod 2 cm (3/4 inch) long at one of the Four uppermost nodes with a completely unrolled leaf
R5	Beans beginning to develop (can be felt when the pod is squeezed) at one of the four uppermost nodes with a completely unrolled leaf
R6	Pod containing full size green beans at one of the four uppermost nodes with a completely unrolled leaf
R7	One pod on the main stem has matured pod color
R8	95% of pods brown

Source: Fehr and Caviness (1977)

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၈. Ubon Rajathanee University for Greater Mekhon Subregion Development, http://www.ubu.ac.th/

တို႕ျဖစ္ပါသည္။ တကၠသိုလ္၀င္ခြင့္ အေသးစိတ္မ်ား၊ ၀င္ခြင့္ေလွ်ာက္လႊာမ်ားကို သက္ဆိုင္ရာ၀က္ဘ္ဆိုက္မ်ားတြင္ ၾကည့္ရႈ ရယူႏိုင္ပါသည္။ အျခားတကၠသိုလ္မ်ားမွာ ျမန္မာျပည္တြင္ ေရပန္းစားလွေသာ္လည္း တခ်ိဳ႕ထိုင္းလူမ်ိဳးမ်ားကိုယ္တုိင္ပင္ မၾကားဖူး ၾကသည္ကိုလည္း ေတြ႕ရပါသည္။ Webster University, www.webster.ac.th သည္ အေမရိကန္ႏိုင္ငံသို႕ သြားေရာက္ေနထိုင္ ပညာသင္လိုုသူမ်ား တဆင့္ခုန္ရာတကၠသိုလ္ ျဖစ္ေသာေၾကာင့္ နာမည္ႀကီးၿပီး Asian Institute of Technology, www.ait.ac.th သည္ ပညာသင္ဆုအေပးမ်ားျခင္း၊ International Program ခ်ည့္ သက္သက္သာရွိျခင္းႏွင့္ အာရွႏိုင္ငံမ်ားအခ်င္းခ်င္း နည္းပညာဆိုင္ရာ သုေတသနႏွင့္ ယဥ္ေက်းမႈတို႕ဖလွယ္ရာအျဖစ္ နာမည္ႀကီးေလသည္။သို႕ရာတြင္ ထိုတကၠသိုလ္မ်ားတြင္ အျခားဘာသာရပ္မ်ား အတြက္လည္း International Program မ်ားရွိပါသည္။ ၀မ္းနည္းစရာေကာင္းေသာအခ်က္မွာ ၂၀၀၄ခုႏွစ္တြင္ထုတ္ျပန္ေသာ အစိုးရပိုင္တကၠသိုလ္မ်ားဆိုင္ရာ ဥပေဒအရ ျမန္မာႏိုင္ငံမွဆယ္တန္းေအာင္သူကို ထိုင္းႏိုင္ငံမွအလယ္တန္းေအာင္သူႏွင့္သာ အရည္အခ်င္း တူသည္ဟု သတ္မွတ္ေပးထားၿပီး ရိုးရိုးဘြဲ႕အတြက္ တကၠသိုလ္တက္လိုသူသည္ GCE O' Level ေအာင္ၿပီးသူျဖစ္မွသာ လက္ခံပါသည္။ ထိုင္းသည္ အေျခခံပညာအတြက္ ၁၂တန္းရွိၿပီး အထက္တန္းကို ၂ႏွစ္တက္ရေသာေၾကာင့္ျဖစ္သည္ဟု ဆုိေလသည္။ မဟာဘြဲ႕ တက္လိုသူသည္ အေျခခံပညာ ၁၂တန္းႏွင့္ ရိုးရိုးဘြဲ႕အတြက္ ၄ႏွစ္တက္ေရာက္သင္ၾကား ေအာင္ျမင္ထားသူျဖစ္ရမည္ ဆိုေသာေၾကာင့္ အနည္းဆံုးစာသင္ႏွစ္ ၁၆ႏွစ္ ရွိရမည္ျဖစ္ရာ ျမန္မာႏိုင္ငံမွာဆယ္တန္းေအာင္ၿပီး တကၠသိုလ္ ၃ႏွစ္တက္လွ်င္ဘြဲ႕ရေသာေၾကာင့္ ၁၄ႏွစ္သာေက်ာင္းတက္ထားရာ မဟာဘြဲ႕အတြက္ ၀င္ခြင့္မမီႏိုင္ေတာ့ေပ။ ထိုအခါ GRE and GMAT စေသာ ေအာင္လက္မွတ္မ်ား၊ ဆိုင္ရာတကၠသိုလ္မ်ားဧ။္ ၀င္ခြင့္စာေမးပြဲမ်ား၊ လူေတြ႕စစ္ေဆးပြဲမ်ားကို ထပ္မံေျဖဆိုရ ေလသည္။ သို႕ေသာ္ Private University မ်ားတြင္ သီးျခားစည္းမ်ဥ္းမ်ား ရွိေလသည္။ အေသးစိတ္ သိလုိ ပါက www.moe.go.th တြင္ ၾကည့္ရႈ ေလ့လာႏိုင္ပါသည္။

ျမန္မာမိဘအမ်ားစု စိုးရိမ္ပူပန္ေနသကဲ့သို႕ ထိုင္းႏိုင္ငံသည္လံုျခံဳမွဳ မရွိေသာႏိုင္ငံ ဟုတ္မဟုတ္ကို ႏွစ္စဥ္ သန္းခ်ီေနေသာကမၻာလွည့္ခရီးသည္မ်ားက သက္ေသခံေနပါသည္။ ေက်ာင္းေဆာင္တိုင္းႏွင့္ တိုက္ခန္းမ်ားတြင္ အေဆာက္အဦတိုင္းတြင္ လံုျခံဳေရးအေစာင့္မ်ား ထူထပ္စြာခ်ထားၿပီး ရဲႏွင့္ လူအခ်ိဳးမွာ လူ၂၀၀လွ်င္ ရဲ တစ္ေယာက္ႏံႈး ျဖစ္ေလသည္။ မိန္းကေလးမ်ားကို လိုက္လံ ေႏွာင့္ယွက္ေသာ၊ ဇြတ္အတင္း ရည္းစားစာ လိုက္ေပး၊ ရည္းစားစကား လိုက္ေျပာေသာ ေယာက္်ားေလးမ်ား လံုး၀ မရွိပါေခ်။ စိတ္ပူစရာ တစ္ခုေကာင္း သည္မွာ ႏြဲ႕ေနေသာ ေယာက္်ားေလးမ်ား ထိုင္းတြင္ေက်ာင္းတက္ပါက အေျခာက္ ျဖစ္သြားႏိုင္ပါသည္။ ၃၀% ေသာ ထိုင္းေယာက္်ား ေလးမ်ားမွာ ႏြဲ႕ေနေသာ Girlish boy မ်ားျဖစ္ၾကၿပီး က်န္ ၃၀%မွာGay မ်ားျဖစ္ၾက ကာ ၂၀%ေသာ ထိုင္းေယာက်္ား စစ္စစ္မ်ားသည္ ညစဥ္ မေကာင္းေသာ ေနရာမ်ား၊ ကလပ္မ်ားသို႕ ပံုမွန္ သြားသည္ဟု social research တက္ေနသူ အခန္းေဖာ္ ထုိင္းမ ကိုယ္တိုင္ ေျပာျပေလသည္။ ထို႕ေၾကာင့္ ထိုင္းမမ်ားသည္ မိန္းကေလးမ်ားကို ဂရုစိုက္ ခ်စ္တတ္ ေသာ ျမန္မာေယာက်္ားကို ေတာ္ေတာ္ သေဘာက် ၾကေလသည္။ ထိုင္းႏိုင္ငံတြင္ တရား၀င္ေရာ၊ တရားမ၀င္ပါ ေရာက္ရွိေနထိုင္ေသာ ျမန္မာဦးေရ ငါးသန္းခန္႕ရွိသည္ဟုခန္႔မွန္းထားၾကပါသည္။

ထိုင္းႏိုင္ငံတြင္ ပညာသင္စားရိတ္သည္ တကယ္ ပညာတတ္သည့္ အတိုင္းအတာ၊ သင္ၾကားေရးႏွင့္ သင္ယူေရး ဆိုင္ရာ အေထာက္အကူျပဳ ကိရိယာမ်ား၊ စာၾကည့္တိုက္မ်ားႏွင့္ လိုအပ္ေသာ စာအုပ္စာတမ္း မ်ား ရရွိႏိုင္မႈ အတိုင္းအတာမ်ားႏွင့္ ႏိႈင္းယွဥ္လွ်င္ ျမန္မာႏိုင္ငံထက္ သက္သာသည္ ဟုပင္ ဆိုႏိုုင္ေလသည္။ ေနထိုင္မႈ စားရိတ္သည္လည္း ျမန္မာႏိုင္ငံထက္ အပံုႀကီး သက္သာေလသည္။ အင္တာနက္ကို ေက်ာင္းစာ ၾကည့္ တိုက္တိုင္းတြင္ ေက်ာင္းသားတိုင္း လြတ္လပ္စြာ သံုးစြဲႏိုင္ရံု သာမက ကိုယ့္အခန္းတြင္ တပ္ဆင္လို လွ်င္လည္း လြတ္လပ္စြာ တပ္ဆင္ႏိုင္ၿပီး ေလွ်ာက္လႊာတင္ၿပီး ၄ရက္အတြင္း အဆင္သင့္ သံုးႏိုင္ေလသည္။ တပ္ဆင္ခ ဘတ္ ၁၀၇၀ႏွင့္ လစဥ္ေၾကး ဘတ္၅၉၀ က်သင့္ေလသည္။ ေနထိုင္မႈ စားရိတ္မွာ သာမန္ ေက်ာင္းသားတစ္ဦးအတြက္ (ဟိုတယ္တြင္ သူေဌးသံုး သံုးဖို႕ မဟုတ္ပါ)

၁. တစ္နပ္စာ ဘတ္၆၀ (ေက်ာင္းကင္တင္းမွာ စားလွ်င္ တနပ္စာ ၁၅ဘတ္မွ ၂၅ဘတ္သာ)
၂. ေက်ာင္း အေဆာင္လခ ၄ေယာက္ တစ္ခန္းဆိုလွ်င္ ၇၅၀ဘတ္ (်အေညိေမိ ိသမာငအသမပ ဆိုလွ်င္ဘတ္ ၂၅၀၀မွ ဘတ္၄၀၀၀ၾကား)
၃. ေရတစ္ယူနစ္ ၁၀ဘတ္ (သတ္မွတ္ရက္တြင္ ႀကိဳတင္ ေၾကညာၿပီးမွ ေရေလွာင္ကန္ သန္႕ရွင္းရန္ ေရပိုက္လိုင္း ခဏျဖတ္ ေတာက္ျခင္းမွ အပ မည္သည့္အခါမွ ေရမပ်က္ပါ)
၄. လွ်ပ္စစ္မီး တစ္ယူနစ္ ၃ဘတ္ (ထရန္စေဖာ္မာ ေပါက္ျခင္း၊ မိုးႀကိဳးပစ္ ခံရျခင္းတို႕ေၾကာင့္ နာရီ၀က္မွ ၃ နာရီၾကာ ခဏ ပ်က္ျခင္းမွွအပ မည္သည့္အခါမွ မီးမပ်က္ပါ)သာကုန္က်ေလသည္။

ဘန္ေကာက္ၿမိဳ႕အတြင္း သြားလာေရးအတြက္ ကားလမ္း၊ ရထားလမ္းႏွင့္ တူးေျမာင္းမ်ား အတြင္းႏွင့္ ေက်ာက္ဖယား ျမစ္တြင္း ေျပးဆြဲေသာ ျမစ္ေၾကာင္း လမ္းသြား ေမာ္ေတာ္ဘုတ္မ်ား သံုးမ်ိဳးရွိေလသည္။ ကားလမ္းအတြက္ Taxi အငွား ကားမ်ား၊ ရိုးရိုးဘတ္စ္ကား၊ အဲယားကြန္း ဘတ္စ္ကား၊ van ဟုေခၚေလ့ ရွိေသာ Hi-Aceကားမ်ား၊ ခရီးတိုေျပးေသာ Pick-upကားေလးမ်ားရွိၿပီး ေစ်းအသက္သာဆံုးမွာ ရိုးရိုး ဘတ္စ္ကားျဖစ္ကာ ခရီးစဥ္ တေၾကာကို ၈ဘတ္ျဖစ္ပါသည္။ အဲယားကြန္း ဘတ္စ္ကားမ်ားမွာ Hybrid bus and ordinary bus ႏွစ္မ်ိဳးျပန္ကြဲၿပီး ခရီးစဥ္ အလိုက္ အနည္းဆံုး Hybrid ကားအတြက္ ၁၂ဘတ္၊ ရိုးရိုးကား အတြက္ ၁၁ဘတ္ျဖစ္ကာ ခရီးစဥ္ အစအဆံုး အတြက္မူ ၂၂ဘတ္ေပးရေလသည္။ van ဟု ေခၚေလ့ရွိေသာ Hi-Ace ကားမ်ားမွာမူ ခရီးစဥ္ နီးေ၀းအလိုက္ (ဆူးေလ-အင္းစိန္ ခရီးေလာက္ကို) ၂၅ဘတ္မွ ၉၀ဘတ္ (ဆူးေလ -တိုက္ႀကီး ခရီးေလာက္ကို) ေပးရၿပီး ေခ်ာင္ေခ်ာင္ ေအးေဆး သက္သာစြာ စီးႏိုင္ေလသည္။ ခရီးတို ေျပးေသာ Pick-up ကားေလးမ်ားမွာ (သမိုင္း- ဆူးေလ ေလာက္ ခရီးကို) ၇ဘတ္သာ ေပးရေလသည္။Taxi မ်ားမွာ စစခ်င္း ၃၅ဘတ္ တက္ေနၿပီး တစ္ကီလိုမီတာ ခရီးတိုင္း ၂ဘတ္ ေပးရေလသည္။ ရထားလမ္း အတြက္ Sky Train or BTS ေခၚ မိုးပ်ံရထား၊ Subway or MRTေခၚ ေျမေအာက္ရထား၊ ရိုးရိုးၿမိဳ႕ပတ္ ရထား ဆိုၿပီး သံုးမ်ိဳးရွိပါသည္။ BTS သည္ တစ္ဘူတာ ၁၀ဘတ္ႏံႈး ေပးရၿပီး ခရီးစဥ္ စဆံုးစီးပါမူ ၄ဘူတာစာ အလကား စီးရေလသည္။ MRT ေခၚ ေျမေအာက္ ရထားသည္ တဘူတာလွ်င္ ၁၂ဘတ္ ေပးရေသာ္လည္း ခရီးစဥ္ ရွည္ေလ၊ ေစ်းသက္သာေလ ျဖစ္ကာ ၁၈ဘူတာလံုး ခရီးစဥ္ စဆံုး စီးနင္းလွ်င္ ၃၆ဘတ္ သာက်သည္။ http://www.reed.eduwww.reed.edu/ ေက်ာက္ဖယား ျမစ္တြင္း ေျပးဆြဲေသာ ေမာ္ေတာ္ဘုတ္မ်ားမွာ ေမာ္ေတာ္ အမ်ိဳးအစား အလိုက္ ေစ်းႏံႈး အသီးသီး ရွိေလသည္။ Pulic Motor Boat မ်ားမွာ ခရီးစဥ္အလိုက္ ေစ်းအနည္းဆံုး ၈ဘတ္မွ ေစ်းအမ်ားဆံုး ၁၈ဘတ္ သာ ေပးရေလသည္။ http://www.in-bangkok.com/ ရထားႏွင့္ ျမစ္ေၾကာင္း ခရီးမွာ ကမၷာ့ အဆိုးရြားဆံုးဟု နာမည္ႀကီးေသာ ဘန္ေကာက္ၿမိဳ႕ဧ။္ ယာဥ္ေၾကာ ပိတ္ဆို႕မႈကို ေရွာင္ရန္ အေကာင္းဆံုးေသာ ခရီးစဥ္မ်ား ျဖစ္ေလသည္။

မည္သည့္ခရီးစဥ္ကို လိုက္ပါသည္ျဖစ္ေစ အလြန္အမင္း တိုးေ၀ွ႕ကာ ၾကပ္သိပ္ ညပ္ပိတ္ေနေအာင္ စီးရသည့္အခါ မည္သည့္ အခါမွ မရွိပါေခ်။ မတ္တပ္ရပ္စီးနင္းရေသာသူ အတန္ငယ္ လူမ်ားက ဘယ္သူမွ သည္လို ကားေပၚ ထပ္မတက္ ၾကေတာ့့သလို စပယ္ယာကလည္း အတင္းမေခၚ၊ ယာဥ္ေမာင္းကလည္း ေစာင့္မေခၚသည္မွာ အလြန္စိတ္ခ်မ္းသာစရာေကာင္းေသာ အက်င့္ပါေပ။ စပယ္ယာက အတင္းယာဥ္စီးခ ေတာင္းရန္ မလိုပါ။ အခ်ိဳ႕ဘတ္စ္ကားမ်ားတြင္ စပယ္ယာ မပါဘဲ ခရီးသည္မ်ားက ယာဥ္ေမာင္းထံကို စည္းကမ္းရွိစြာ အလိုအေလ်ာက္ သြားေရာက္ကာ ယာဥ္စီးခ ေပးၾကေလသည္။ ဘတ္စ္ကားလိုင္း အခ်ိဳ႕မွာ ည (၇)နာရီတြင္ သိမ္းၿပီး အခ်ိဳ႔မွာ ည ၁၁နာရီ ထိရွိကာ မိုးခ်ဳပ္ေသာေၾကာင့္ ၾကားကားေစ်းေတာင္းျခင္း မရွိရံုသာမက တရက္စာ စာရင္းပိတ္ၿပီးခ်ိန္တြင္ အလကား ေပးစီးပါေသးသည္။ ထိုင္းဥပေဒအရ ႏိုင္ငံျခားသားေက်ာင္းသားမ်ား အလုပ္လုပ္ခြင့္ မရွိေသာ္လည္း ႏိုင္ငံျခားသားအလုပ္သမားမ်ား ေက်ာင္းတက္ခြင့္ရွိေသာေၾကာင့္ အလုပ္ရၿပီးမွ ေက်ာင္းတက္မွသာ အလုပ္တဖက္ ေက်ာင္းတဖက္ ေနႏိုင္ပါမည္။ သို႕ေသာ္ မဟာဘြဲ႕အတြက္ ထိုသို႕ ေက်ာင္းတက္ပါက စာေမးပြဲက်ဖို႕ မ်ားေလသည္။ သည္မွ်ဆိုလွ်င္ ထိုင္းႏိုင္ငံတြင္ ေက်ာင္းေနရန္ႏွင့္ ေက်ာင္းတက္ေနစဥ္ ကာလအတြင္း ေနထိုင္ စားေသာက္ သြားလာႏိုင္ရန္ သတင္းအခ်က္အလက္ အေတာ္အသင့္ ျပည့္စံုၿပီဟု ယူဆမိပါသည္။
: Higher Education, Thai Education, ခြန္ျမလႈိင္
Copy from "Education for Myanmar Youths Blog"

Thesis Proposal of U Ko Ko, Kasetsart University

Insecticidal Activities of Melaleuca leucadendron Leaf Essential Oil Against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera:Tenebrionidae)

Introduction
Insect pests cause heavy losses of stored grain quantitatively and qualitatively throughout the world (Madrid et al., 1990). Insect damage in stored grains may amount to 10% - 40% in countries where modern storage technologies have not been introduced (Shaaya et al., 1997). Insect pests cause the loss of stored food grain in tropical and semitropical environments (Tripathi et al., 2001). Chemical control of insects in storage has been used for a long time, but has serious drawbacks (Sharaby, 1988). Careless and indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides has led to a number of wellknown problems. Some of these are contamination of food, soil, ground water, rivers, lakes, oceans, air etc. with toxic residues, side effects on non-target insects and other organisms, increase of the number of pest species resistant to pesticides, and pest resurgence. In addition, many non-lethal as well as lethal accidents occurred due to mishandling of highly toxic synthetic products.

As a logical consequence of the undesirable side effects of these products, there is a growing awareness in industrialized and also in developing countries, of the toxicological and environmental problems involved in the use of synthetic pesticides. This awareness has led to a steadily increasing movement towards a more environmental – oriented, sustainable agriculture with low or no input of toxic synthetic pesticides and other agricultural chemicals in an attempt to preserve and protect the environment as well as human health.

The plant kingdom is by far the most efficient “factory” of compounds. It synthesizes secondary metabolic products which can partly be considered as weapons to defend plants against pests and diseases which have competed with them since time immemorial.

Historically, chemicals derived from plants have been an important source of insecticides. The insecticidal properties of the alkaloid nicotine, for example, have been known since 1800s (Metcalf et al., 1962; Ware, 1986). Botanical materials such as pyrethrum, rotenone, and nicotine were among the first compounds used to control agricultural insect pests (Perkins, 1985; Grainge and Ahmed, 1988). With the advent of effective and economical synthetic insecticides, however, plant-based insecticides used in agriculture were displaced. As technological (resistance, resurgence and secondary outbreaks) and cultural (health and environmental) problems involved in the use of synthetic pesticides have increased, interest in naturally occurring plant compounds as alternative sources of pest control has been renewed (Perkins, 1985). Currently, novel, as well as established, secondary plant compounds is being evaluated as alternatives for crop protection in many countries.

Several commercial produced plant-derived compounds have exhibited good potential as insecticides. Azadirachtin, a triterpenoid from the neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae), has growth-regulating and antifeedent properties against numerous insect pests (Warthen, 1979; Rembold, 1988). Commercial preparations of many household insecticides are augmented with pyrethrins, a complex of esters extracted from flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariefolium (Treviranus) (Compositae) (Bell et al., 1990). Alkaloids that have been used commercially include ryanodine, the active ingredient in ryania (Ryania spp., Flacourtiaeae) the principal components extracted from the seeds of sabadilla, Schoenocaulon spp., Liliaceae (Ware 1986; Bell et al., 1990). Although too expensive for commercial synthesis, rotenone, an isoflavonoid procured primarily from two genera of tropical legumes, several Derris and Lonchocarpus spp., (Fabaceae), has been moderately effective against insects with chewing mouthparts (Bell et al., 1990).

Plants are rich sources of natural substances that can be utilized in the development of environmentally safe methods for insect control. The deleterious effects of certain purified phytochemicals or crude plant extracts on insects are manifested in several ways including toxicity (Hiremath et al., 1997), growth retardation (Breuer and Schmidt, 1995), feeding inhibition (Klepzig and Schlyter, 1999; Wheeler and Isman, 2000), oviposition deterrence (Dimock and Renwick, 1991; Hermawan et al., 1994; Zhao et al., 1998), suppression of calling behavior (Khan and Saxena, 1986) and reduction of fecundity and fertility (El-Ibrashy,1974; Muthukrishnan and Pushpalatha, 2001). Although a wide variety of effects provide potential alternatives for the use of synthetic chemical insecticides, certain plant families, particularly Meliaceae, Asteraceae, Rutaceae, Labiaceae, Annonaceae and Canellaceae are viewed as exceptional promising sources of plant – based insecticides (Jacobson, 1989; Schmutterer, 1990). Entomo-toxic properties of extracts from plants belonging to several other families have also been frequently reported (Hermawan, et al., 1994; Sadek, 1997; Rodriguez – Saona and Trumble, 1999).

Moreover, it is well known that some insecticides from plants have been used for a long time; for instance, pyrethrum, obtained from the flower heads of C. cinerariifolium (=C. cinerariaefolium), was already known during the time of the Persian King Darius the Great (521-486 BC). Botanical insecticides are broad-spectrum in pest control, and many are safe to apply, unique in action, and can be easily processed and used. Botanical pesticides are biodegradable (Devlin and Zettel 1999). It also reduces environmental contamination and human hazards (Grainge and Ahmed, 1988).

Essential oils are believed to act as allelopathic agents or as irritants that protect plants from predation by insects and infestation by parasites (Simpson, 1995). Essential oils and their constituents have also been shown to be a potent source of botanical pesticides (Singh and Upadhyay, 1993). Jilani et al., (1988) reported that turmeric oil repelled various grain insects. Clove oil was shown to be toxic against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Sighamony et al., 1986). The essential oils of several spices like anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) and peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) have been found to have fumigant toxicity to four major stored product pests, R. domonica, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) and S. oryzae (Shaaya et al., 1991). Ho et al., (1996) found that the essential oil of garlic is insecticidal to T. castaneum and S. oryzae. The essential oils of nutmeg seed (Myristica fragrans Houtt) (Huang et al., 1997) and cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees) (Huang and Ho, 1998) are also toxic to T. castaneum and S. oryzae.

The Melaleuca essential oils have a high repellent effect upon the ant, Wasmannia auropunctata (Ochetomyrmex auropunctatus) which is a pest of both forest and plantations and fruit crops (Menendez et al., 1992). Alonso et al., (1996) demonstrated that undiluted cajuput oil inflicted 100% mortality to Andrector ruficornis (Cerotoma ruficornis) in lablab (Lablab purpureus cv. Rongai) in Cuba and has distinct repellent effects. Alonso – Anelot et al., (1994) found that essential oil of Melaleuca quinquenervia leaf has a potential for insect repellency on T. castaneum whereas the tea tree oil from Melaleuca alternifolia in water carrier could eliminate flea on dogs, cats, hamsters and white rats (Fitzjarrell, 1995).

Cajuput oil is also known to prevent plant infection of Herpes Simplex Type 1 on plant (Nawawi et al., 1999) and inhibits the growth of fungi, bacteria and yeast (De Colemnares et al., 1998; Dhirendra et al., 1989; Dubey et al., 1983; Farag et al., 1998).

Insect damage in stored grains may amount to 10% - 40% in countries where modern storage technologies have not been introduced (Shaaya et al., 1997). Therefore, there is a need for diverse kinds of safe insecticide or repellents for use on food grain. Generally, synthetic insecticides and fumigation are the main methods in the stored products pest control. However, increased public concern over the residual toxicity of insecticides applied to stored grain, the occurrence of insecticide resistant insect strains and the necessary precautions to work with traditional chemical insecticides calls for new approaches to control stored product insect pests. (Yildirim et al., 2001). Thus, there is a considerable interest in developing natural products that are relatively less damaging to the mammalian health and environment than existing conventional pesticides, as alternatives to non-selective synthetic pesticides to control the pests of medical and economic importance. (Tunc and Sahinkaya, 1998 and Keita et al., 2000).

M. leucadendron is easily found and grown in Southeast Asia countries. There is no report on the activities of M. leucadendron leaf essential oil against stored pests. So the purpose of this study is to investigate the activities of M. leucadendron against S. zeamais, one of the major stored pests in maize and T. castaneum, one of the major stored pests in groundnut.

Objectives

The objectives of this study are:
1. To study biological activity of Melaleuca essential oils on two stored pests, Sitophilus zeamais and Tribolium castaneum.

2. To increase the efficacy of Melaleuca essential oils using synergistic and/or formulation.

Literature Review

Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky)

Sitophilus zeamais (Maize weevil) is a small insect and belongs to order Coleoptera and family Curculionidae. It is a serious pest of stored grain throughout the warmer parts of the world. Infestation often starts in the field, and is later carried into the grain stored. The main host for this insect pest is maize and alternative hosts are sorghum, rice and other cereals.

Distribution

This pest is virtually cosmopolitan throughout the warmer parts of the world, extending as far north as Japan and southern Europe. It has been recorded from Europe (Spain, Italy, Turkey); Africa (Angola, Arabia, South Africa, East Africa, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, Madeira, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria); Asia (India, Tibet, Malaysia, Molucca Isles, Borneo, Japan); Australasia (Australia-New South Wales, Queensland, West Australia; New Guinea, New Zealand, Pacific Islands); USA (Texas, Florida); Central America (Costa Rica, Mexico, West Indies); South America (Argentina, Brazil, Guyana, Honduras, Chile, Equador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Venezuela).

Life History

The female lays white and oval eggs inside the grain by chewing a minute hole in which each egg is deposited, followed by the sealing of the hole with a secretion. These eggs hatch into tiny grubs which stay and feed inside the grain and are responsible for most of the damage. Mature larvae are plump, legless and white, about 4 mm long. Pupation takes place inside the grain.

The adult beetle emerges by biting a circular hole through outer layers of the grain. They are small brown weevils, virtually indistinguishable from each other, about 3.5–4.0 mm long with rostrum and thorax large and conspicuous. The elytra are uniformly dark brown. Each female is capable of laying 300–400 eggs, and the adults live for up to 5 months and are capable fliers.

The life cycle is about 5 weeks at 30 ˚C and 70% RH; optimum conditions for development are 27–31˚C and more than 60% RH; below 17˚C development ceases (Dennis, 1983).

Damage

A thin tunnel is bored by the larva from the surface of the grain kernel. Circular exit holes on the surface of the grain kernel are characteristic.

Control

Infested buildings should be thoroughly cleaned and sprayed with BHC (Benzene Hexa Chloride) or malathion, and any parts of the building which cannot be reached with sprays should be fumigated with the use of recommended fumigants. Infested grtain can be mixed with malathion w.p. which is generally successful in achieving control.
Fumigation of infested grain with methyl bromide, or an ethylene dichloride and carbon tetrachloride mixture is effective but should only be carried out by approved operators because of the toxicity hazards.

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)

Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle) belongs to order Coleoptera and family Tenebrionidae. This species is a serious secondary pest throughout the warmer parts of the world in food stores. Infestation is apparently by the appearance of adults on the surface of the grain: there is extensive damage to previously holed or broken grains, or grain damage to previously damaged by other pests. Damage is done by both larvae and adults.

Distribution

This pest is cosmopolitan in warmer countries.

Life History

The female lays small, cylindrical and white eggs scattered in the produce. The larvae are yellowish-white, about 6 mm long when fully grown. The head is pale brown, and the last segment of the abdomen has two upturned dark pointed structures. The larvae live and develop inside the grain till pupation. The damage to the stored grains is done by the larvae. The pupa is yellowish-white, later becoming brown, the dorsum hairy, and the tip of the abdomen having two spine-like processes. The adult is rather flat, oblong, reddish-brown in colour, and about 3-4 mm long. Each female is capable of laying 400-500 eggs and the adults are long-lived, under some circumstances living for a year or more. The life period from egg to adult is 35 days at 30 ˚C. Adults fly in large numbers in the late afternoon (Dennis, 1983).

Damage

Infestation is apparent by the appearance of adults on the surface of the grain; there is extensive damage to previously holed or broken grains, or grain damaged by other pests. Damage is done by both larvae and adults.

Control
The shelled grain should be thoroughly admixed with BHC (Benzene Haxa Chloride) dust or powder, if locally permitted. Fumigation should only be carried out by approved operators.


Melaleuca leucadendron

The M. leucadendron is commonly known as cajuput tree, punk, weeping paperbark, milk wood, white wood, paper bark tree, swamp tea tree, tea tree, white tea tree and brown tea tree (Bailey, 1958). It is classified in the kingdom Plantae, class Magnoliopsida, order Myrtales and family Myrtaceae.

M. leucadendron is a large tree, native to Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands and Australia. It can be found in many countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, Cuba, Venezuela, Turkey, United States and Hawaii (Alonso et al., 1996; De Colmenares et al., 1998; Kitanov et al., 1992). The tree can be used for many purposes such as essential oil, medicinal properties, fuel wood, timber, charcoal and shelter belts (Brinkman and Vo, 1991).

The oil of M. leucadendron leaf derived by steam distillation (known as cajuput oil or tea tree oil) is green in color with a camphor odor and is used medicinally such as antiseptic, stomachic, stimulant, analgesic, antirhematic, expectotant, and for treatment of intestinal worms (Usher, 1974; Kitanov et al., 1992). This essential oil contains 1, 8 – cineole, nerolidol, alloromadendrene, viridiflorol and α – terpineol as the major components (De Colmenares et al., 1998; Pino et al., 2002).

Botanical Insecticides

Several higher plants produce secondary metabolites that are considered as defensive phytochemicals inhibiting herbivory and infestation by microorganisms (Green and Hedin, 1986; Klocke, 1989; Rosenthal and Berenbaum, 1991). In addition, plant allelochemicals act as repellents, growth regulators and antifeedants (Jermy, 1990). Therefore, these plants may provide new sources of natural pesticides and antifeedants which can be used to replace heavy insecticides applications (Grainge and Ahmed, 1988; Ananthakrishnan, 1992). Antifeedant or feeding deterrent is often highly specific in action, and advantages in integrated pest management (IPM) applications (Whitehead and Bowers, 1983).

The indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has given rise to many serious problems, including genetic resistance of pest species, toxic residues, increasing costs of application, environment pollution, hazards from handling etc. (Ahmed et al., 1981; Khanam et al., 1990). The development of cross- and multi-resistance strains in many important insect species, resulting from the continuous use of chemical insecticides, has been reported from all over the world (Dyte, 1970; Pasalu and Bhatia, 1983; Dyte and Halliday, 1985; Irshad and Gillani, 1990; Zettler and Cuperus, 1990; Zettler, 1991).

For several years, many plant species are being investigated for their natural products to be used as pest control. For example, some active ingredients of seeds and leaves of the tropical neem tree, Azadirachta indica, especially the tetranortriterpenoid azadirachtin, influence the feeding behavior, metamorphosis, fecundity and numerous insect species belonging to various orders (Jacobson, 1989). Neem oil, obtained by cold-pressing seed, can be effective against soft-bodied insects and mites but is also useful in the management of phytopathogens (Isman et al., 1996).

The use of neem leaves in protecting stored grain and other commodities is as age-old practice in India. Pruthi (1937) and Pruthi and Singh (1950) reported the efficacy of neem leaves in protecting stored grain from insect attack. Jotwani and Sircar (1965) showed that the neem kernel was effective as a grain protectant against stored grain insect pests.Yadav (1983) found that neem kernel protects leguminous seeds from attack by Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) and C. chinensis (L.)

Pandey et al., (1976) observed that 1 to 3 parts of neem oil per 100 parts of seed effectively protects Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum) seeds from damage by the bruchid C. chinensis for at least 135 days, without any adverse effects of treatment on germination. Ketkar (1976) reported the efficacy of neem kernel powder and neem oil in controlling the grain pests, under existing godong (warehouse) conditions.


Apart from those natural products in current use such as pyrethrins, rotenone, nicotine, ryania, sabadilla and neem oil, several substances of plant origin have been identified as having toxic, repellent, antifeedant, and/or growth- and development inhibiting-potential on arthropod pests (Coats, 1994). The potential of essential oils to act as fumigants has been demonstrated for stored-product pests (Klingauf et al., 1983; El-Nahal, et al., 1989; Singh et al., 1989;, Shaaya et al., 1991; Rice and Coats 1994; Saraç and Tunç 1995). These results indicate that essential oils may be efficacious and safe replacements for conventional synthetic fumigants.

In Togo, Adhikary (1981) compared neem leaf and seed powder with conventional insecticides for protecting corn stored in sacks or unpeeled corn cobs in bins against S. zeamais, Tribolium spp. R. dominica and Cathartus spp.

As spices are commonly used in cooking in various parts of the world, they are generally considered to be relatively harmless to humans compared with non-edible plants. In addition, spices possess various insect control properties. For example, acetone and hexane extracts of peppercorn are toxic to several species of stored product insects (Su, 1984). Chopped garlic and ethyl acetate extracts of garlic were found to repel T. castaneum and S. zeamais (Ho et al., 1987). The essential oil of garlic has also been demonstrated to be insecticidal to T. castaneum and S. zeamais (Ho et al., 1996). The essential oil of several spices, such as anise (P. anisum) and peppermint (M. piperita) have fumigant toxicity to four major stored product pests, R. dominica, T. castaneum, S. oryzae and O. surinamensis (Ho et al., 1994) and star anise (Illicium verum Hook F) (Ho et al., 1995) showed insecticidal to T. castaneum and S. zeamais and suppressed progeny production. The main constituent of star anise, anethole, was also insecticidal to these two stored product insects and suppressed progeny production (Ho et al., 1997).

The addition of acetone extracts of black pepper and nutmeg seeds reduced the number of F1 progeny and prolonged the developmental period of S. zeamais (Haryadi and Rahayu, 2003). Himalayan cedarwood oil drilled from the wood chips of Cedrus deodara was found to possess its toxicity to the pulse beetle (Singh and Rao, 1985) and protection against rice weevil (Singh et al., 1989).

Materials and Methods

Insects

Two species of insects from Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative, Thailand will be used in this study: S. zeamais (maize weevil) and T. castaneum ( red flour beetles). S. zeamais will be reared on rice 12–13% moisture content while T. castaneum will be reared on rice bran. The cultures will be maintained in the laboratory at 29-32 ˚C and 70–80% RH.

Extraction of Essential Oils

Fresh leaves or fruits of selected plants will be collected from several places or bought from local market, where no pesticides are applied. The fresh leaves will be cut into small pieces and placed in 5 l extracting flask before steaming on the heating mantle for 6–8 h. Then, essential oil will be collected and kept in the refrigerator for further use.

Repellency Test

Petri dishes of 9 cm in diameter will be used to confine insects during experiment. Melaleuca essential oil will be diluted in ethanol to different concentrations (1%, 2%, 3% and 4%) and ethanol absolute will be used as control. Filter papers (9 cm diameter) will be cut in half. One ml of Melaleuca essential oil will be applied to one half of the filter paper as uniformly as possible with a micropipette. The other half (control) will be treated with 1 ml of ethanol absolute. Both treated half and control sides will then be air–dried to evaporate the solvent completely. Full disc will be carefully remade by attaching tested halves to control halves with sellotape. Precautions should be taken so that attachment will not prevent the free movement of insects from one half to another, but the distance between the filter-paper halves remained sufficient to prevent seepage of test samples from one half to another. Each remade filter paper will be placed in a petri dish with the seam oriented in one of four randomly selected different directions to avoid any insecticidal stimuli affecting the distribution of insects. Ten insects will be released at the center of each filter-paper disc and a cover will be placed on the petri dish. For each essential oil, five replicates will be used and the experiment will be repeated once. Counts of the insects present on each strip will be made after 1 h and at hourly interval up to the fifth hour.


Fumigant Toxicity

Filter papers (2 cm diameter) will be impregnated with aliquots of 25 µl of an appropriate concentration of Melaleuca essential oil. Ethanol absolute will be used as control. After evaporating the solvent or ethanol for 2 min in air, each filter paper will be placed on the underside of the screw cap of a glass vial (2.5 cm diameter, 5.5 cm height). The cap will be screwed tightly onto the vial containing ten adults of either species of insects. Each concentration and control will be replicated five times, and the experiment will be repeated once. After 24 h, the insects will be transferred to holding cages with culture medium in incubator for the determination of end-point LC50 and LC95 values.


Contact Toxicity

The filer paper impregnation method will be used to examine the contact toxicity. Filter papers (9 cm diameter) will be impregnated with aliquots of 0.5 ml of an appropriate concentration of different essential oils. Ethanol absolute will be used for the control in these experiments. The filter papers will be air dried for 1 h. A glass ring (5.4 cm diameter, 2.5 cm depth) will be placed on each filter paper before 20 insects will be confined to each glass ring. Sticky substance will be applied to the inner surface of each ring to prevent the insects from climbing onto the side of the ring. For adult S. zeamais and T. castaneum, five replicates will be set up for each essential oil concentration and control, and experiment will be repeated once and kept them till new generation.

Flour Disk Bioassay

Aliquots of 200 µl of a suspension of wheat flour in water (10 g in 50 ml) will be dropped onto a clean plastic placed in a tray. The disks will be left in the fume hood overnight to dry, after which they will be put in an oven at 60 ˚C for 24 h. Melaleuca essential oil will be diluted in ethanol to get different concentrations (2%, 4% and 6%) and ethanol absolute and no ethanol will be used as two controls. After evaporation of the solvent, the disks will be placed in glass vials (diameter 2.5 cm, height 5.5 cm). Ten group-weighed, unsexed adults will be added to each preweighed vial containing the disk. Five replicates will be prepared. After three days, the glass vials with flour disks and live insects will be weighed again, and mortality of insects, if any, will be recorded. In order to eliminate the decrease in weight of flour disks due to the evaporation of ethanol and Melaleuca essential oil, the weight of one and two flour disks treated with ethanol or various concentrations of Melaleuca essential oil will be recorded. After three days, the disks will be weighed again to determine the decrease in their weight. The weight of the flour disks used in the experiments will be corrected for any decrease in weight due to evaporation and drying. Nutritional indices will be calculated with some modifications: relative growth rate (RGR) = (A-B)/B x day-1, where A = weight of live insects on the third day (mg)/No. of live insects on the third day, B = original weight of insects (mg)/No. of insects; relative consumption rate (RCR) = D/B x day-1, where D = biomass ingested (mg)/No. of live insects on the third day; efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI)(%) = (RGR/RCR) x 100. For antifeedant action, the formula described by Isman et al. (1990) will be modified in calculating the feeding deterrence index (FDI)(%) = (C-T)/C x 100, where C = the consumption of control disks and T = the consumption of treated disks, as the control and treated disks will be placed in separate vials in no-choice tests.


Data Analysis

Data in all experiment will be analyzed by SAS program, and Least Significant Difference Test (LSD) will be analyzed to compare the treatment means (P <>Experimental Place and Duration

Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand (June - 2007 to Jan - 2009).

Study Supported

All of these studies are under financial support by the government of The Union of Myanmar under technical support by FAO for Myanmar Oil Crops Development Project.

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Contact Numbers of MOAI

Minister' s Office
Phone:-95-67-410004
Fax.-95-67-410130
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Fax.-95-67-410119
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Phone:-95-67-410007
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Agricultural Mechanization Department
Phone:-
Fax.:
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Water Resources Utilization Department
Phone:
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Department of Agricultural Research
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Phone:-95-67-416516
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